Andragogy
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Andragogy refers to methods and principles used in adult education.[1][2] The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρ- andr-,
meaning "man", and ἀγωγός agogos, meaning "leader
of"; it literally means "leading man", whereas "pedagogy"
literally means "leading children".[3]
Definitions]
Two primary understandings of
"andragogy" exist:
1
The science of understanding
(theory) and supporting (practice) lifelong education of adults.
2
In the tradition of Malcolm Knowles, a specific theoretical and practical approach. It is based on
a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners as well as
teachers as facilitators of learning.
Interpreted broadly throughout
academic literature, the term also invites other definitions such as "adult education practice", "desirable values", "specific
teaching methods", "reflections", and "academic
discipline", with many authors claiming it to
be better than traditional adult education.
The term has been used by some to
allow discussion of contrast between self-directed and self-taught education.[4]
History
The term was originally coined by
German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833. Andragogy was developed into a theory of adult
education by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy. It later became very popular in the US by the American
educator Malcolm Knowles. Knowles asserted that andragogy (Greek:
"man-leading") should be distinguished from the more commonly used
term pedagogy (Greek: "child-leading").
Knowles collected ideas about a theory of adult education from the end
of World War II until he was introduced to the term "andragogy". In
1966, Knowles met Dusan Savicevic in Boston. Savicevic was the one who shared
the term andragogy with Knowles and explained how it was used in the European
context. In 1967, Knowles made use of the term "androgogy" to explain
his theory of adult education. Then after consulting with Merriam-Webster, he corrected the spelling of the term to "andragogy"
and continued to make use of the term to explain his multiple ideas about adult
learning.
Knowles' theory can be stated
with six assumptions related to the motivation of adult
learning:[5][6]
1
Need to know: Adults need to know the reason for learning something.
3
Self-concept: Adults need to be responsible
for their decisions on education; involvement in the planning and evaluation of their
instruction.
4
Readiness: Adults are most interested in learning subjects having
immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives.
6
Motivation: Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators.
In most European countries, the
Knowles discussion played at best, a marginal role. "Andragogy" was,
from 1970 on, connected with emerging academic and professional institutions,
publications, or programs, triggered by a similar growth of adult education in
practice and theory as in the United States. "Andragogy" functioned here
as a header for (places of) systematic reflections, parallel to other academic
headers like "biology", "medicine", and
"physics".
Examples of this use of andragogy
are the Yugoslavian (scholarly) journal for adult education, named Andragogija
in 1969, and the Yugoslavian Society for Andragogy; at Palacky University in
Olomouc (Czech republic) the Katedra sociologie a andragogiky (Sociology
and Andragogy Department) was established in 1990. Also, Prague University has
a Katedra Andragogiky (Andragogical Department); in 1993, Slovenia's Andragoski
Center Republike Slovenije (Slovenian Republic Andragogy Center) was
founded with the journal Andragoska Spoznanja; in 1995, Bamberg
University (Germany) named a Lehrstuhl Andragogik (Androgogy Chair).
On this formal level "above
practice" and specific approaches, the term "andragogy" could be
used relating to all types of theories, for reflection, analysis, training, in
person-oriented programs, or human resource development.
Assumptions
Adult learning is based upon
comprehension, organization and synthesis of knowledge rather than rote memory.
There are seven Principles of Adult Learning:[7][8]
•
Adults must want to
learn – They learn effectively only when they are free to
direct their own learning and have a strong inner and excited motivation to
develop a new skill or acquire a particular type of knowledge, this sustains
learning.
•
Adults will learn only
what they feel they need to learn – Adults
are practical in their approach to learning; they want to know, "How is
this going to help me right now? – Is it relevant (Content, Connection and
Application) and does it meet my targeted goals."
•
Adults learn by doing – Adolescents learn by doing, but adults do through an active
practice and participation, this helps in integrating component skills into a
coherent whole.
•
Adult learning focuses
on problem solving – Adolescents tend to learn
skills sequentially. Adults tend to start with a problem and then work to find
a solution. A meaningful engagement, such as posing and answering realistic
questions and problems is necessary for deeper learning. This leads to more
elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger representations of the knowledge (Craik
& Lockhart, 1972).
•
Experience affects
adult learning – Adults have more experience
than adolescents. This can be an asset and a liability, if prior knowledge is
inaccurate, incomplete, or naive, it can interfere with or distort the
integration of incoming information (Clement, 1982; National Research Council,
2000).
•
Adults learn best in an
informal situation – Adolescents have to follow a
curriculum. Often, adults learn by taking responsibility by the value and need
of content they have to understand and the particular goals it will achieve.
Being in an inviting, collaborative and networking environment as an active
participant in the learning process makes it efficient.
•
Adults want guidance
and consideration as equal partners in the process – Adults want information that will help them improve their
situation. They do not want to be told what to do and they evaluate what helps
and what doesn't. They want to choose options based on their individual needs
and the meaningful impact a learning engagement could provide. Socialization is
more important among adults.[9][10]
Adult learning styles
Learning styles are referred and
made by how certain people learn, categorize, and process new content they are
descriptors of common behavior patterns. Each person may have multiple
preferred learning styles and these are preferences that have mild-strong
inclinations.[11][12] Keefe formally defines learning styles as "characteristic
cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable
indicators of how learners perceive, interacts with, and respond to the
learning environment".[13] The three primary learning styles are visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic.[14][15] Kolb suggests to educate adult learners around the experiential
cycle that reaches all types of learners.[16]
Academic discipline
In the field of adult education
during recent decades, a process of growth and differentiation emerged as a
scholarly and scientific approach, andragogy. It refers to the academic discipline(s)
within university programs that focus on the education of adults; andragogy
exists today worldwide. The term refers to a new type of education which was
not qualified by missions and visions, but by academic learning including:
reflection, critique, and historical analyses.
Dusan Savicevic, who provided
Knowles with the term andragogy, explicitly claims andragogy as a discipline,
the subject of which is the study of education and learning of adults in all
its forms of expression' (Savicevic, 1999, p. 97,[17] similarly Henschke, 2003,[18] Reischmann, 2003[19]).
Recent research has expanded
andragogy into the online world, finding that using collaborative tools like a wiki can
encourage learners to become more self-directed, thereby enriching the
classroom environment.[20] It gives scope to self-directed learners. Andragogy helps in
designing and delivering the solution focused instructions to self-directed.[21] The methods used by andragogy can be used in different
educational environments[22] (e.g. adolescent education[23]).
Andragologist Andragologists are those who practice and specialize in the
field of andragogy. Andragologists have received a doctoral degree from an
accredited university in Education (EdD) or a doctorate in Psychology (PsyD),
or Philosophy (PhD) and focused their dissertation utilizing andragogy as a
main component of their theoretical framework.
Differences from pedagogy
Here are some of the main
differences between pedagogy and andragogy.
PEDAGOGY
|
ANDRAGOGY
|
|
Learner
|
—The learner is dependent on
the instructor, the teacher schedules all the activities; determining how,
when and where they should take place
—Teacher is the one who is
responsible for what is taught and how it is taught
—Teacher evaluates the learning
|
—Learner is self-directed and
moves towards independence
—Learner is responsible for the
learning
—Self-evaluation is seen
|
Learner's experience
|
—There is little experience
which could be gained from this kind of learning
|
—There is large quantity of
experience gained
|
Readiness to learn
|
—Standardized curriculum set
which will be based on societal needs
|
|
Orientation to learning
|
—Here, it is a process of
acquiring subject matter
|
—Here learning is for
performing tasks and solving problems
|
Motivation
|
—Motivation is by external
pressure, and there is lot of competition for grades
|
Optimal learning
Neuroscientist and educator Eric
Jensen's factors for optimal learning[27] include:
•
Personal meaning.
•
Circumstances present.
•
Personal-concept. (A person's
collection of thoughts about beliefs, experiences, values and knowledge.)
•
Mode of sensory input. (Visual;
auditory; kinesthetic; olfactory; gustatory.)
•
Information processing. (Learning
styles; processing states like linear, holistic, random, logical, concrete,
reality based, temporal, non-temporal...etc.; artistic/analytic orientation;
abstract/concrete...etc.)
Critique
Knowles himself changed his
position on whether andragogy really applied only to adults and came to believe
that "pedagogy-andragogy represents a continuum ranging from
teacher-directed to student-directed learning and that both approaches are
appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation."[28][29] Hanson (1996) argues
that the difference in learning is not related to the age and stage of one's
life, but instead related to individual characteristics and the differences in
"context, culture and power" within different educational settings.[30]
In another critique of Knowles'
work, Knowles was not able to use one of his principles (Self-concept) with
adult learners to the extent that he describes in his practices. In one course,
Knowles appears to allow "near total freedom in learner determination of
objectives" but still "intended" the students to choose from a
list of 18 objectives on the syllabus.[31] Self-concept can be critiqued not just from the instructor's
point of view, but also from the student's point of view. Not all adult
learners will know exactly what they want to learn in a course and may seek a
more structured outline from an instructor. An instructor cannot assume that an
adult will desire self-directed learning in every situation.[32]
J.R. Kidd goes further by
claiming that principles of learning have to be applied to lifelong
development. He suggested that building a theory on adult learning would be
meaningless, as there is no real basis for it. P. Jarvis even implies that
andragogy would be more the result of an ideology than a scientific
contribution to the comprehension of the learning processes.[33] Knowles himself mentions that
andragogy is a "model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual
framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory."[34] There appears to be a lack of
research on whether this framework of teaching and learning principles is more
relevant to adult learners or if it is just a set of good practices that could
be used for both children and adult learners.
See also
References]
5
^ "Instructional
Design: Theories - Andragogy (M. Knowles)". Encyclopedia of Psychology. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
6
^ "andragogy @ the
informal education homepage". the encyclopedia
of informal education. Retrieved 2011-05-17.
10
^ "Educating adult
learners: twelve tips for teaching business professionals" (PDF). University of Oklahoma,
Tulsa, U.S.A.
11
^ Felder, R.M. Are learning styles invalid ? .NCSU
12
^ Trigwell, Keith; Prosser, Michael; Waterhouse, Fiona (1999).
"Relations between teachers' approaches to teaching and students'
approaches to learning". Higher Education. 37 (1): 57–70. doi:10.1023/a:1003548313194. ISSN 0018-1560.
13
^ Keefe, J.W. (1979) Learning style: An overview. NASSP's Student
learning styles: Diagnosing and proscribing programs (pp. 1-17). Reston, VA.
National Association of Secondary School Principles.
14
^ "Principles of
Adult Learning & Instructional Systems Design" (PDF). National Highway
Institute.
16
^ Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
17
^ Savicevic, Dusan (1999): Understanding Andragogy in Europe and
America: Comparing and Contrasting. In: Reischmann, Jost/ Bron, Michal/ Jelenc,
Zoran (eds): Comparative Adult Education 1998: the Contribution of ISCAE to an
Emerging Field of Study. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovenian Institute for Adult
Education, p. 97-119.
20
^ Bowe, Hoewe & Zeldes (2012) An Andragogical Approach to
Developing Dialogic Learning through Wikis. Middle East Media Educator 2(1)
21
^ Holt, Debbie. "Andragogy and its
implications for teaching adult students in community colleges" (PDF).
24
^ Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999, 2010) 'Andragogy', the encyclopedia
of informal education. Retrieved: 9/24/2015
26
^ Risley, L.; McKee, S. "Andragogical
Methods Applied to Adult Learning Environments: Adult Education for Adult
Learners in and out of the Traditional Classroom" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2014.
27
^ Jensen, Eric (16 February 1998). Super Teaching. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781890460020. Retrieved 19 October 2016 – via Google Books.
28
^ Merriam, et al (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive
Guide, p. 87
29
^ (Merriam, Caffarella &
Baumgartner 2007, p. 87)
30
^ Hanson, A. (1996) The search for separate theories of adult
learning: does anyone really need andragogy? In Edwards, R., Hanson, A., and
Raggatt, P. (eds.) Boundaries of Adult Learning. Adult Learners, Education
and Training, Vol. 1 (p. 107) London: Routledge.
31
^ Rachel, J.R. (2002) Andragogy's detectives: A critique of the
present and a proposal for the future. Adult Education Quarterly, Vol.
52, No. 3, p. 216
32
^ Merriam, S.B. (2001) Andragogy and self-directed learning:
Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education, Vol. spring 2001, No. 89, p. 10
33
^ "infed.org -
Andragogy: what is it and does it help thinking about adult learning?". infed.org.
34
^ Knowles, M. (1989) The making of an adult educator: An
autobiographical journey (Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
•
Bowe, Brian J.; Hoewe, Jennifer;
Zeldes, Geri Alumit (2012). An Andragogical Approach to Developing Dialogic
Learning through Wikis. Middle East Media
Educator vol. 1 issue 2.
•
Knowles, Malcolm; Holton, E. F., III; Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The
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Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From
pedagogy to andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press. ISBN 978-0695814724. LCCN 80014344.
•
Loeng, S. (2012). Eugen
Rosenstock-Huessy – an andragogical pioneer. Studies in Continuing Education, doi:10.1080/0158037X.2012.749850
•
Merriam, Sharran B.; Caffarella,
Rosemary; Baumgartner, Lisa (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive
Guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0787975883. LCCN 2006019145.
•
Reischmann, Jost (2005):
Andragogy. In: English, Leona (ed): International Encyclopedia of Adult
Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. S. 58-63. (.pdf-download)
•
Roberts, Michael (2007). "Applying the Andragogical Model of Adult Learning:
A Case Study of the Texas Comptroller's Fiscal Management Division". Applied Research Project. Texas State University.
•
Sopher, M. J. (2003). An
historical biography of Malcolm S. Knowles: The remaking of an adult educator
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin-Madison,
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•
Thorpe, Mary; Edwards, Richard;
Hanson, Ann (1993). Culture and processes
of adult learning. Routledge. ISBN 9780415089814.
•
How Learning Works:
Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. San Francisco, USA: Jossey-Bass, A John Wiley & Sons Imprint. 2010. ISBN 9780470484104. OCLC 468969206.
•
Vann, Barry A. (1998).
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